ABSTRACT:

Periodontal disease develops when the oral microbial community becomes unbalanced. Smoking and nutrition both influence this balance. This study compared the prevalence of three bacterial species, including Klebsiella pneumoniae, Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, and Porphyromonas gingivalis, among smokers and non-smokers in Haripur. This study also considered how nutrition might relate to these findings; for this purpose, 140 men were recruited, including 80 smokers and 60 non-smokers, for the collection of their dental plaque. The dental plaque samples were tested using PCR to detect the three bacterial species. The analysis showed that chi-square tests were used, and p ≤ 0.05 was considered significant. In smokers compared to non-smokers, K. pneumoniae was observed in 45% versus 81% (p = 0.02); A. actinomycetemcomitans in 41% versus 39% (p = 0.79); and P. gingivalis in 61% versus 58% (p = 0.67). Only the difference for K. pneumoniae was statistically significant. Classic periodontal pathogens were common in both groups, but no clear evidence that smoking increased their prevalence. The higher prevalence of K. pneumoniae in non-smokers suggests that other factors, including diet, nutrition, and oral hygiene, may shape the oral microbiome as significantly as smoking. Consequently, oral health education should integrate nutritional guidance alongside smoking cessation advice.

Keywords: Periodontal disease, Smoking, Bacterial agents, Oral health, Nutrition, Micronutrients

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